Should we ban loss leaders?

Loss leaders are one of those retail marketing tricks that are often complained about, for many different reasons. For example, back in 2009 the NBR ran a story Lack of loss-leader sales good news for brand conscious wine industry. In 2011 the Otago Daily Times ran a story claiming,

Supermarkets were also driving binge-drinking by using alcohol as a "loss leader", sold below cost to attract shoppers.

Others see loss leaders as anti-competitive or predatory.

Big chains have the power to buy in bulk, reducing the individual price of products. They use tactics like ‘loss-leaders’ – purposely selling a product below cost to entice customers into their store to buy even more with their ‘savings’. The smaller retailers must match their prices, for fear of losing customers, which reduces their margins. When their rents rise markedly, they are increasingly being forced to move or close.

But are loss leaders really so bad? Are they are anti-competitive or predatory?

A forthcoming paper in the American Economic Review - Unplanned Purchases and Retail Competition by Justin P. Johnson - suggests that loss leaders are non-predatory and possibly even pro-competitive.

Abstract

I propose a framework in which asymmetric multi-product retailers compete for one-stop shoppers who have biased beliefs about their future purchase probabilities (and so make unplanned purchases). One firm carries a full portfolio of products while the other carries an incomplete but endogenous one. Using this framework, I examine the phenomenon of loss leading, the optimal product portfolio of the smaller firm, and the effects of banning loss leading. Among other results, I show that there is a non-predatory (and possibly pro-competitive) justification for the observation that such larger firms may charge below cost on the core product lines of their smaller rivals.

So, sorry, but banning loss leaders may not be such a great idea.

Institute of Economic Affairs: 2016 - a year in review podcast

IEA staff join IEA News Editor Kate Andrews (chair) to discuss all of the surprises and upsets in 2016, what these revelations will mean for the new year.

First, we hear from IEA Director General Mark Littlewood and Digital Officer Madeline Grant join in to discuss the unforeseen triumph of the campaign to leave the European Union.

After that we hear from Communications Director Stephanie Lis and Head of Lifestyle Economics Christopher Snowdon on the aftermath of the Brexit vote, particularly concerning the new government that has risen up because of it.

And finally, Mark will be back to chat with Kate about how America ‘made politics interesting again.’

Also hear from Mark, Maddie, Stephanie and Christopher about their favorite moments, statistics, and 'Person of the Year' in 2016, as well as their best prediction for 2017.

Interesting blog bits

1. The IEA blog covers a new IEA publication on Balancing the economy: The hand of government or the invisible hand?
   

   Despite its considerable strengths, the UK economy is seen as having a number of problems, in particular productivity which lags behind some competitors, low levels of investment and persistent regional disparities. Following the referendum decision to leave the EU, there is wide interest in developing a new industrial strategy. The UK government's proposals are unlikely to help the situation.

2. Jenesa Jeram suggests This Christmas, reject sugar taxes and embrace the joy of food

   We don't need a sugar tax to protect us from Christmas excesses.

3. Andrew Bernard, J. Bradford Jensen, Stephen Redding, Peter Schott on Global firms: Insights for trade and trade policy
   

   Events of the last year have raised questions about the future growth of international trade. This column examines the role played by ‘global firms’ that both import and export, and are likely to be part of multinationals, in the international economy. In a world of interdependent firm decisions, small reductions in tariffs or trade costs can have magnified effects on trade flows, as they induce firms to serve more markets with more products at greater volumes, and also to source greater volumes of intermediate inputs from more countries. At the same time, policies to restrict imports can end up hurting producers for whom both importing and exporting are a central pillar of their overall business strategy.

4. Scott Sumner asks Did monetary offset cause the Great Recession?

   In the past, it has been argued by Summer that tight money caused the Great Recession. But what caused the tight money?

5. Ed Dolan asks What Is the Nairu and Why Does it Matter?

   What happens in terms of US monetary policy will depend, in large part, on what may be the wonkiest number in all of economics—the Nairu. Nairu stands for Non-Accelerating Inflation Rate of Unemployment—such a mouthful that no one ever says it out loud. The basic idea behind the Nairu is simple. It is widely accepted that as the economy moves through the business cycle from recession to expansion to boom, shortages develop in labor and product markets that put upward pressure on prices and wages. The Nairu is supposed to capture the sweet spot—the lowest level to which the unemployment rate can safely fall before inflation starts to accelerate.

6. Scott Burns on Cashing Out of Poverty

   Financial innovations like mobile money have gained fame for transforming commerce in the developing world. But they’re also helping the poor escape poverty.

7. Timothy Taylor offers An Appetizer Buffet of Economic Research Highlights

   The sort of readers who find Taylor's blog interesting might also want to check out the "Research Highlights" blog being run by Tim Hyde for the American Economic Association. Once or twice each week, the blog features a paper chosen from this set of seven journals and offers up a short, readable, nontechnical overview. Here are some examples from the last few weeks.

Import duties

The University of Chicago Booth School of Business Economic Experts Panel was asked the question,

Adding new or higher import duties on products such as air conditioners, cars, and cookies — to encourage producers to make them in the US — would be a good idea.

In response 93% of them "Disagreed" or "Strongly Disagreed". There were three "Did Not Answer" so of those who did answer 100% went with either "Disagreed" or "Strongly Disagreed".

In the comments on their vote Oliver Hart noted,

Duties lead to dead-weight losses and also retaliation.There can be losers from free trade but there are better ways to compensate them.

while Austan Goolsbee just said,

stupid

I guess none of these guys will be getting jobs in Trump's White House National Trade Council.

Fiat money vs. the gold standard

Scott Sumner and Larry White take on monetary policy in this Econ Duel.

Throughout the 19th century and up until the Great Depression, the gold standard was used in the United States. It was largely abandoned in the 20th century.

But what is the gold standard? It’s a system for defining the value of a currency in terms of gold. In other words, you could exchange your $20 paper bill for actual gold at one point in history.

Under a fiat money system, such as the one we have in the U.S. today, that $20 paper bill is inconvertible. You can’t exchange it for a backing store of value because there isn’t one.

In this Econ Duel, economists Scott Sumner and Larry White, who both focus on monetary theory and policy, debate the positives and drawbacks to the gold standard vs. fiat money, and the role of central banks.

On the side of the gold standard, White argues that, when properly implemented without a central bank intervening, it provides a more predictable price level and lower average inflation.

Sumner, taking up the banner for fiat money, argues that the gold standard is simply a rule that worked well in the 19th century and that a good fiat money system is, for this day and age, a better alternative.

What is holding firms back in developing countries?

Chris Woodruff, IGC research programme director, explains why improving management practices is critical for the development of the private sector in developing countries.

Why is rent do damn high?

Many of the arguments here apply to New Zealand.

You’ve no doubt heard it before: the rent is too damn high!

In major cities across the United States, rent prices have been skyrocketing for some time. As a percentage of median income, rent is much higher for those that choose city life over suburbia.

But why are rental prices in these cities so expensive, and what can we do about it?

It’s a classic case of supply and demand: lots of people want to move to big cities because of the opportunities they afford. Naturally, they demand housing. But the supply is often short due to many factors, from geography to regulations. What does economics tell us happens when there’s a lot of demand, but not so much supply? Prices rise. As a consequence, many people are priced out of pursuing the lucrative opportunities available in major cities.

Coastal cities, like San Francisco and New York, have obvious geographical restrictions on building “out.” One way to deal with this problem is to build upwards with more skyscraper housing. This often isn’t feasible due to regulations on building heights, density, parking requirements, etc. But these regulations could be lessened or removed, allowing big cities to become denser and lowering rent prices. Lifelong city-dweller Matt Yglesias discusses this approach in this Duel.

On the other side, Tyler Cowen, who has always lived in the suburbs, argues that allowing cities to become denser may only provide a short-term solution. As more people move in, the cities become more productive with higher incomes for their inhabitants. And the rents rise again.

What to say to those who lose their jobs because of imports

Here at the Cafe Hayek blog Don Boudreaux takes up one of the most difficult issues to do with advocating free trade, what does an advocate of free trade say to to those who lose jobs to imports?

Nothing that you say to someone who loses his or her job to changing market conditions is likely to satisfy that person. The personal almost always trumps the abstract. The seen hides the unseen. The proximate overwhelms the distant. The present is real while the future is still to be created. This reality, however, does not diminish the importance of defending free trade honestly, unconditionally, and without apology.

Such a defense begins with the insistence that jobs are not lost to imports or to foreigners; instead jobs are lost to fellow citizens – in two ways. First, it is the spending decisions of fellow citizens that determine when particular jobs are created and when they are destroyed. Second, the job lost by Smith is replaced with a new (and likely very different) job filled, if not by Smith, then by Smith’s fellow citizen Jones. So when someone complains about losing his or her job “to imports,” it is right to note that protecting that job necessarily requires that fellow citizens’ freedoms be curtailed and fellow citizens’ economic well-being be reduced. Protection necessarily shrinks the spending power of countless fellow citizens. Protectionism also destroys the actual jobs of many other fellow citizens (for example, jobs in domestic machine-tool factories that disappear because steel tariffs take a bite out of domestic machine-tool production) and destroys the job prospects of still other fellow citizens (for example, retail-store-management jobs that never materialize because tariffs on consumer goods reduce consumers’ demand for such goods).

Again, no such arguments will satisfy someone who believes that his job disappeared because of international trade. But that person’s refusal to accept that these arguments are part of a sound case for free trade does not, as emotionally understandable as this refusal is, render these arguments invalid. If we mute or trim our defense of free trade out of understandable sympathy with the unemployed worker who we see, we are complicit in supporting a system – protectionism – that not only destroys the jobs of workers who we don’t see (but who are, and whose sufferings are, every bit as real as the worker who we do see), but also will deny to our children and grandchildren a future that is as prosperous and as peaceful as possible.

It is necessary to keep in mind when defending free trade that it will destroy some jobs (a fact that is often clearly seen), and this has very real negative effects on people, but it is also necessary to realise that it will also create jobs (a fact that is often unseen) which has very real positive effects on other people. As Paul Krugman has written,

It should be possible to emphasize [...] that the level of employment is a macroeconomic issue, depending in the short run on aggregate demand and depending in the long run on the natural rate of unemployment, with microeconomic policies like tariffs having little net effect. Trade policy should be debated in terms of its impact on efficiency, not in terms of phony numbers about jobs created or lost.

The trade economist Douglas Irwin has this to say on the matter of trade and jobs,

The claim that trade should be limited because imports destroy jobs has been around at least since the sixteenth century. And imports do indeed destroy jobs in certain industries: [...]

But just because imports destroy some jobs does not mean that trade reduces overall employment or harms the economy. [...]

So in terms of jobs the free trade/protection debate is about which jobs there are in an economy rather than the total number of jobs. Changes in trade policy moves jobs a round the economy, free trade moves jobs away from sectors of the economy that produce things we are (relatively) bad at doing towards things we are (relatively) good at doing. Each of free trade and protection will be good for some people and bad for others. Perhaps the real question is, how do we best help those who in the short-run are harmed by changes in trade policy?

Bad politics drives out good economics

The idea that politicians will deliberately implement economic policies they know to be bad just to help them politically is highlighted here in a paper about Richard Nixon's wage and price controls.

The Political Economy of Wage and Price Controls: Evidence from the Nixon Tapes by Burton A. Abrams and James Butkiewicz

Abstract

On August 15, 1971, Richard Nixon imposed the first and only peacetime wage and price controls in U.S. history. The Nixon tapes, personal tape recordings made during the presidency of Richard Nixon, are now available to the public and provide a unique body of evidence to investigate the motivations for Nixon’s macroeconomic policies. We have uncovered and report in this paper evidence that Nixon manipulated both monetary and fiscal policies to create a political business cycle that helped secure his reelection victory in 1972. Nixon was very knowledgeable about economic matters and understood the risks to the economy of his macroeconomic policy actions and the imposition of wage and price controls, but chose to tradeoff longer-term economic costs to the economy for his own short-term political gain.

Interestingly the following comes from an 2000 interview with Milton Friedman:

INTERVIEWER: There is a photograph of you and George Shultz with Nixon in the Oval Office. What did you say to him on that occasion? What did you tell him?

MILTON FRIEDMAN: Well, I don't know what occasion that particular one was, but the one that's relevant to your question is the last time I saw Nixon in the Oval Office with George Shultz. What we usually discussed when Nixon wanted to talk was the state of the economy: what monetary policy was doing.

Nixon was a very, very smart person. In fact, he had one of the highest IQs of any public official I've met. The problem with Nixon was not intelligence and not prejudices. The problem with him was that he was willing to sacrifice principles too easily for political advantage. But at any rate, as I was getting up to leave, President Nixon said to me, "Don't blame George for this silly business of wage and price controls," meaning George Shultz. And I believe I said to him, I think I said to him, "Oh, no, Mr. President. I don't blame George; I blame you! " (laughs) And that, I think, was the last thing I said to him. Now, the interesting point of that story is that the Nixon tapes are now available, and I have been trying to get that part of the Nixon tapes, but I haven't been able to get them yet. I want to make sure I didn't make this up.

Legalising all drugs: an interview with Dr. Jeffrey Miron

Steve Patterson interviews Harvard economist Jeffery Miron about legalising drugs and social safety nets.

World trade and world wars

Trade is a mechanism that helps countries exchange goods, raise welfare, and escape poverty. Open markets allow countries to grow their economies through trade. In this video, Faizel Ismail of the University of Cape Town discusses how African countries can work together to build a regional integration project that, in addition to being more balanced and equitable, results in their ability to compete more effectively in the world economy.

A few interesting economics books of 2016

2016 was a good year for books in economics. Here are a few that I thought interesting.

To start with a New Zealand connection we have A Few Hares to Chase: The Life and Times of Bill Phillips by Alan Bollard. Phillips was a New Zealander most famous for the "Phillips Curve" which shows an inverse relationship between the level of unemployment and the rate of inflation..

Phillips experienced the rigours of the Great Depression on construction sites, and while still a young man he roamed the outback of Australia working in gold mines and sometimes crocodile hunting. In 1937 he set off to discover militarising Japan, a guerrilla war in Manchuria, Stalin's Soviet Union, and the tensions in Europe. On the outbreak of war, he joined the RAF and was sent to Singapore where he rearmed planes but was eventually incarcerated in a POW camp by the Japanese. In camp he learned languages, invented gadgets for the troops and built a clandestine radio. After the war, he scraped through a sociology degree at the LSE, before convincing a faculty to let him build a hydraulic model of the economy. This beautiful complex machine was a great success and put Bill Phillips on the track of serious economics. In the next few decades he developed new ideas for stabilising economies, was one of the first to use electronic computers, developed the Phillips Curve, showed ways to help an economy to grow, and developed new techniques to model economies.

Another book with a New Zealand connection is Was Communism Doomed?: Human Nature, Psychology and the Communist Economy by Simon Kemp, who is Professor of Psychology at the University of Canterbury.

Simon looks at whether the ideology of communism was doomed to failure due to psychological rather than structural flaws. Does communism fail because there is not enough individual incentive and does it discourage psychological ownership? If so, does it produce learned helplessness and therefore empower evil? Such questions are considered both with respect to how communism actually functioned and how it could have functioned using examples from Eastern Europe and the USSR itself. It reviews both the ideology of communism and its history, as well as the basic but difficult question of how one might decide whether an economic system can be defined as successful or not.

Two of the very best book of this year are to do with economic history. A Culture of Growth: The Origins of the Modern Economy by Joel Mokyr and Bourgeois Equality: How Ideas, Not Capital or Institutions, Enriched the World by Deirdre N. McCloskey are about how the rich got rich.

During the late eighteenth century, innovations in Europe triggered the Industrial Revolution and the sustained economic progress that spread across the globe. The big mystery with the industrial revolution is why it took place at all. Why did this revolution begin in the West and not elsewhere, and why did it continue making the rich countries rich in the process? Joel Mokyr argues that a culture of growth specific to early modern Europe and the European Enlightenment laid the foundations for the scientific advances and pioneering inventions that would instigate explosive technological and economic development. Mokyr argues that culture--the beliefs, values, and preferences in society that are capable of changing behavior--was a deciding factor in societal transformations. He looks at the period 1500-1700 to show that a politically fragmented Europe fostered a competitive "market for ideas" and a willingness to investigate the secrets of nature. At the same time, a transnational community of brilliant thinkers known as the "Republic of Letters" freely circulated and distributed ideas and writings. This political fragmentation and the supportive intellectual environment explain how the Industrial Revolution happened in Europe but not China, despite similar levels of technology and intellectual activity. In Europe, heterodox and creative thinkers could find sanctuary in other countries and spread their thinking across borders. In contrast, China's version of the Enlightenment remained controlled by the ruling elite.

Deirdre McCloskey points out that most humans today are better off than their forebears. In this book, the concluding volume of her trilogy celebrating the oft-derided virtues of the bourgeoisie, McCloskey argues that the poorest of humanity will soon be joining the comparative riches of Japan and Sweden and Botswana. Why? Not because of the accumulated capital but rather because of ideas. “Our riches,” she argues, “were made not by piling brick on brick, bank balance on bank balance, but by piling idea on idea.” Capital was necessary, but so was the presence of oxygen. It was ideas, not matter, that drove “trade-tested betterment.” Nor were institutions the drivers. McCloskey builds a powerful case for the initiating role of ideas—ideas for electric motors and free elections, of course, but more deeply the bizarre and liberal ideas of equal liberty and dignity for ordinary folk. Liberalism arose from theological and political revolutions in northwest Europe, yielding a unique respect for betterment and its practitioners, and upending ancient hierarchies. Commoners were encouraged to have a go, and the bourgeoisie took up the Bourgeois Deal, and we were all enriched.

A somewhat depressing and critical voice which argues that the level of economic growth that we have become to depend on will come to an end is raised in The Rise and Fall of American Growth: The U.S. Standard of Living since the Civil War by Robert J. Gordon

Economic growth is often seen as the norm for countries like the United States. Innovations such as electric lighting, indoor plumbing, motor vehicles, air travel, and television transformed households and workplaces. But has that era of unprecedented growth come to an end? The Rise and Fall of American Growth challenges the view that economic growth will continue unabated, and demonstrates that the life-altering scale of innovations between 1870 and 1970 cannot be repeated. Gordon contends that the nation's productivity growth will be further held back by the headwinds of rising inequality, stagnating education, an ageing population, and the rising debt of college students and the federal government, and that we must find new solutions.

Looking not at history but at current economies Per L. Bylund writes on The Seen, the Unseen, and the Unrealized: How Regulations Affect Our Everyday Lives.

This book illuminates the effects of regulations on people’s everyday lives. It traces the effects of regulations on an economy by working through the ripple effects of changes. Regulations, which are restrictions placed on the working of the economy, have consequences, both intended and unintended, direct and indirect. While the direct effects are well understood, the indirect effects are often overlooked because they don’t fit with the common understanding of the economy. More to the point, this book emphasises the real effects of regulation and market change on individual actors, thereby stressing how the economy works to provide an individual with the options that exist in choice situations. The book drafts a new definition of prosperity and well-being which focuses on the individual’s access to valuable alternatives. From this point of view, the real implications of regulation are traced step by step, following the logic of exchange and the effects on individual actors rather than the economy as a whole.

One of the more controversial books of the year is Illiberal Reformers: Race, Eugenics, and American Economics in the Progressive Era by Thomas C. Leonard

In Illiberal Reformers, Leonard reexamines the economic progressives whose ideas and reform agenda underwrote the Progressive Era dismantling of laissez-faire and the creation of the regulatory welfare state, which, they believed, would humanise and rationalise industrial capitalism. But not for all. Academic social scientists such as Richard T. Ely, John R. Commons, and Edward A. Ross, together with their reform allies in social work, charity, journalism, and law, played a pivotal role in establishing minimum-wage and maximum-hours laws, workmen's compensation, antitrust regulation, and other hallmarks of the regulatory welfare state. But even as they offered uplift to some, economic progressives advocated exclusion for others, and did both in the name of progress. Leonard meticulously reconstructs the influence of Darwinism, racial science, and eugenics on scholars and activists of the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, revealing a reform community deeply ambivalent about America's poor. Illiberal Reformers shows that the intellectual champions of the regulatory welfare state proposed using it not to help those they portrayed as hereditary inferiors but to exclude them. Leonard discusses his book with Russ Roberts at EconTalk here and with Glenn Loury on the Glenn Show at Bloggingheads.tv here.

For me one of the most interesting books of the year is Adaptation, Specialization, and the Theory of the Firm: Foundations of the Resource-Based View by Birger Wernerfelt.

The book sets out to provide a foundation for a new theory of the firm, drawing on Birger Wernerfelt's work on economic theory and the resource-based view of the firm. It addresses a vigorous and long-standing academic debate over what exactly a 'firm' is, both in the field of management and economics. Wernerfelt revisits his classic articles, including an extensively revised 'A Resource-Based View of the Firm' (1984), which have been updated and synthesised to provide precise and accessible concepts and predictions along with a discussion of two his more recent papers 'On the Nature and Scope of the Firm' (1997) and 'The Comparative Advantages of Firms, Markets, and Contracts' (2015). These papers form the foundations of the 'Adaptation Cost' approach to the theory of the firm.

I shall end with what I, obviously, think of as the greatest book of 2016, The Theory of the Firm: An overview of the economic mainstream by Paul Walker

Firms are a ubiquitous feature of the economic landscape, with much of the activity undertaken within an economy taking place within their boundaries. Given the size of the contribution made by firms to economic activity, employment and growth, having a theoretical understanding of the nature and structure of firms is crucial for understanding how an economy functions.The Theory of the Firm firstly offers a brief overview of the past of the theory of the firm/production. Next, the ‘present’ of the theory of the firm is discussed in three sections. The first section considers the post-1970 theory of the firm literature per se, while the second section scrutinises the relationship between the three most prominent of the modern sets of theories: the reference point, property rights and transaction cost approaches. The third section looks at the theory of privatisation. This volume offers an intuitive introduction to the theories of the firm as well as simple formal models of the most important contributions to the literature. It also outlines the historical evolution of the traditional and modern theories of the firm.

Staying safe this Christmas

Thanks to Ele Ludemann at the Homepaddock blog for advice on staying safe this Christmas:

Please be advised that all employees planning to dash through the snow in a one-horse open sleigh, going over the fields and laughing all the way are required to undergo a Risk Assessment addressing the safety of open sleighs.

This assessment must also consider whether it is appropriate to use only one horse for such a venture, particularly where there are multiple passengers. Please note that permission must also be obtained in writing from landowners before their fields may be entered.

To avoid offending those not participating in celebrations, we request that laughter is moderate only and not loud enough to be considered a noise nuisance.

Benches, stools and orthopaedic chairs are now available for collection by any shepherds planning or required to watch their flocks at night.

While provision has also been made for remote monitoring of flocks by CCTV cameras from a centrally heated shepherd observation hut, all facility users are reminded that an emergency response plan must be submitted to account for known risks to the flocks.

The angel of the Lord is additionally reminded that prior to shining his/her glory all around s/he must confirm that all shepherds are wearing appropriate Personal Protective Equipment to account for the harmful effects of UVA, UVB and the overwhelming effects of Glory.

Following last year’s well publicised case, everyone is advised that human rights legislation prohibits any comment with regard to the redness of any part of Mr. R. Reindeer.

Further to this, exclusion of Mr. R Reindeer from reindeer games will be considered discriminatory and disciplinary action will be taken against those found guilty of this offence.

While it is acknowledged that gift-bearing is commonly practised in various parts of the world, everyone is reminded that the bearing of gifts is subject to Hospitality Guidelines and all gifts must be registered.

This applies regardless of the individual, even royal personages.

It is particularly noted that direct gifts of currency or gold are specifically precluded under provisions of the Foreign Corrupt Practices Act. Further, caution is advised regarding other common gifts, such as aromatic resins that may initiate allergic reactions.

Finally, in the recent case of the infant found tucked up in a manger without any crib for a bed, Social Services have been advised and will be arriving shortly.

Compliance of these guidelines is advised in order for you to fully participate with the appropriate save level of festive spirit.

thxs
Risk Management Team

Is psychology education or indoctrination?

A new paper in Current Psychology asks this question, and the answer isn't completely reassuring. It appears that many first year psychology textbooks pass on falsities, half-truths and urban legends.

Education or Indoctrination? The Accuracy of Introductory Psychology Textbooks in Covering Controversial Topics and Urban Legends About Psychology by Christopher J. Ferguson, Jeffrey M. Brown and Amanda V. Torres

Abstract

The introductory psychology class represents the first opportunity for the field to present new students with a comprehensive overview of psychological research. Writing introductory psychology textbooks is challenging given that authors need to cover many areas they themselves may not be intimately familiar with. This challenge is compounded by problems within the scholarly community in which controversial topics may be communicated in ideological terms within scholarly discourse. Psychological science has historically seen concerns raised about the mismatch between claims and data made about certain fields of knowledge, apprehensions that continue in the present “replication crisis.” The concern is that, although acting in good faith, introductory psychology textbook authors may unwittingly communicate information to readers that is factually untrue. Twenty-four leading introductory psychology textbooks were surveyed for their coverage of a number of controversial topics (e.g., media violence, narcissism epidemic, multiple intelligences) and scientific urban legends (e.g., Kitty Genovese, Mozart Effect) for their factual accuracy. Results indicated numerous errors of factual reporting across textbooks, particularly related to failing to inform students of the controversial nature of some research fields and repeating some scientific urban legends as if true. Recommendations are made for improving the accuracy of introductory textbooks.

Interesting blog bits

1. Matt Ridley asks Why is the left reviving apartheid?
   

   Identity politics is taking us backwards to division and prejudice.

2. Tom G. Palmer on A New, Old Challenge: Global Anti-Libertarianism

   A spectre is haunting the world: the spectre of radical anti-libertarian movements, each grappling with the others like scorpions in a bottle and all competing to see which can dismantle the institutions of liberty the fastest. Some are ensconced in the universities and other elite centers, and some draw their strength from populist anger. The leftist and the rightist versions of the common anti-libertarian cause are, moreover, interconnected, with each fueling the other. All explicitly reject individual liberty, the rule of law, limited government, and freedom of exchange, and they promote instead radical, albeit aggressively opposed, forms of identity politics and authoritarianism. They are dangerous and should not be underestimated.

3. Russ Roberts on The Human Side of Trade

   Free trade is on the run. The president-elect of the United States calls the free market the “dumb market.” He wants to renegotiate past trade deals. The death spiral of manufacturing jobs makes people wonder if trade with China was really such a good idea. Some economists claim to have found evidence that increased trade with China causes an increase in suicide. It is tempting to argue then, that free trade, while good for the economy, is not so good for human beings.

4. Timothy Taylor on the Economics of Gentrification

   "Gentrification" arises when a neighborhood in a city that has in the past offered relatively low-cost housing to relatively low-income people experiences the entry of a wave of higher-income buyers. The new entrants often buy the older housing stock and rebuild or refurbish it, pushing up housing prices in the rest of the neighborhood. On one side, this process offers lower-income people who own their homes a chance for a financial windfall, and can also offer benefits to the neighborhood like improved local job opportunities, shopping options, and public safety. On the other side, gentrification also disrupts existing neighborhoods and can displace low-income residents, some of whom may have been living in the neighborhood for a long time.

5. Michael Reddell on Brexit, Trump and all that

   Last week, The Treasury hosted a guest lecture featuring two visiting academics under the heading Brexit, Trump & Economics: Where did we go wrong. When the invitation went out, I was rather puzzled by the title? Who was this “we” that apparently “got things wrong”?

6. Tyler Cowen on Prizes are flourishing.

   Stumped for solutions to hundreds of industrial and technical problems, businesses and governments alike are turning the search for innovative ideas into prize-worthy puzzles that capitalize on the ingenuity of the crowd.

Big corporations are powerful and long lasting?

From Mark Perry at his Carpe Diem blog

What do the companies in these three groups have in common?

Group A: American Motors, Brown Shoe, Studebaker, Collins Radio, Detroit Steel, Zenith Electronics and National Sugar Refining.

Group B: Boeing, Campbell Soup, Deere, General Motors, IBM, Kellogg, Procter and Gamble and Whirlpool.

Group C: Facebook, eBay, Home Depot, Microsoft, Google, Netflix, Office Depot and Target.

And the answer is:

All of the companies in Group A were in the Fortune 500 in 1955, but not in 2016.

All of the companies in Group B were in the Fortune 500 in both 1955 and 2016.

All of the companies in Group C were in the Fortune 500 in 2015, but not 1956.

It turns out that nearly 9 of every 10 Fortune 500 companies in 1955 are gone, merged, or contracted. Only 12% (and fewer than 1 in 8) of the Fortune 500 companies in 1955 were still on the list 61 years later in 2016, and more than 88% of the companies from 1955 have either gone bankrupt, merged with (or were acquired by) another firm, or they still exist but have fallen from the top Fortune 500 companies.

But we so often told about all powerful big corporations are, how the control markets and can force consumer to buy whatever products they sell. John Kenneth Galbraith is perhaps the most (in)famous economist who argued along these lines. He argued that in the industrial sectors of the economy, which are composed of the largest corporations - think Fortune 500 companies, the principal function of market relations is, not to constrain the power of the corporate behemoths, but to serve as an instrument for the implementation of their power. Moreover, the power of these corporations extends into commercial culture and politics, allowing them to exercise considerable influence upon popular social attitudes and value judgements. That this power is exercised in the shortsighted interest of expanding commodity production and the status of the few - the 1% - is, in Galbraith's view, both inconsistent with democracy and a barrier to achieving the quality of life that the "new industrial state" with its affluence could provide to the many. Galbraith argued that we find ourselves living in a structured state controlled by these large and all powerful corporations. Control over demand and consumers is exercised via the use of advertising which creates a never ending consumer "need" for products, where no such "need" had existed before. In addition, as Princeton University Press said in its advertising for a new edition of Galbraith's "The New Industrial State",

The goal of these companies is not the betterment of society, but immortality through an uninterrupted stream of earnings.

If all this is true why is it that so few have survived from 1955 to 2016?

Another hypothesis is that there’s been a lot of market disruption, churning, and Schumpeterian creative destruction over the last six decades. This suggests that no matter what some economists, and competition policy authorities, may want you to think, corporations are not all powerful and consumers are not just feeble minded puppets having their strings pulled by evil corporate executives. Yes, market competition and consumer sovereignty could actually be a thing.

Joseph Henrich on the difference between economics and psychology

Tyler Cowen interviews anthropologist Joseph Henrich. At one point they talk about the difference between economics and psychology:

COWEN: You’re an anthropologist. You’ve spent a lot of time with economists — coauthored, worked with Paul Romer, Colin Camerer, others. As an anthropologist, what do you find strange about the tribe known as econ? [laughs]

HENRICH: I had a real opportunity. I was very fortunate in my career to be a professor of psychology and a professor of economics at the same time but to be neither in some deep sense. I would get to go back and forth from seminars in economics and psychology.

In economics, there’s this really competitive culture. The way I like to describe it: If you’re giving a seminar in economics, the crowd — everybody’s trying to show who’s the smartest guy in the room. Just on your first slide, someone will raise their hand. (I’m like, I haven’t said anything yet!) Then they’ll try to ask the killer question which undercuts your whole talk so that they can get you right at the beginning.

[laughter]

HENRICH: Whereas psychologists, they’ll sit quietly. They watch your talk. You go through your whole PowerPoint. You probably touched a lot of different research projects.

Then there’ll be question time; at first no hands will go up. Then someone will be like, “I got a question.” Then they say, “I just have one small question. I mean, it was a great talk and this is just a very minor thing.”

Then it could be a killer question at that point when they’ve done the preface. It’s a very strong cultural difference between the econ tribe and the psychology tribe.

I’ve always wanted to write an ethnography: My Life among Two Strange Tribes: The Psychologists and the Economists.

Contracts are important and old ..... really old

From the Presentation Speech by Professor Per Strömberg, Member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences, Chairman of the Nobel Committee for the Prize in Economic Sciences in Memory of Alfred Nobel, 10 december 2016.

At the edge of the Mediterranean − outside today's Izmir, Turkey − the Greek city of Teos was located in ancient times. During recent excavations of that city, archaeologists discovered a 1.5 meter high white marble stele, with a fifty line long chiselled inscription. The stele turned out to be a 2,200 year old lease agreement for a property including buildings, farmland and associated slaves.

A wealthy man in Teos had donated the property to a nearby gymnasium, but the students - who were busy with their studies and sports - leased it out to the highest bidder. One clause in the detailed agreement gave the owners the right to inspect yearly whether the tenant was keeping the buildings in good repair and taking good care of the farmland. More than half of the lines of the inscription listed the extra fees and penalties that could be charged to the tenant in case of a breach of contract. The agreement also gave the owners the right to hold religious ceremonies on the property three days per year; this not only provided the students with spiritual sustenance, but also made their rental income tax-free.

Nobel Prize lectures in economic sciences for 2016

From Nobelprize.org:

Oliver Hart: Incomplete Contracts and Control

Oliver Hart delivered his Prize Lecture on 8 December 2016 at the Aula Magna, Stockholm University.


Bengt Holmström: Pay for Performance and Beyond

Bengt Holmström delivered his Prize Lecture on 8 December 2016 at the Aula Magna, Stockholm University.

Oliver Hart on the good and bad in economics

From Hart's speech at the Nobel Banquet, 10 December 2016

After 47 years working in the area, I have learned that economics is both more and less powerful than people think. It is more powerful because it provides an indispensable set of tools for understanding human behavior. Whether we are talking about an individual's decision about how much education to get, a firm's decision about how much to invest, or a society's decision about how best to tackle global warming, economics can provide an invaluable perspective. In the context of the current prize my co-laureate and I have shown that economics can throw light on whether teachers should be rewarded according to their students' test scores; or whether prisons should be run by private companies or by the government.

This is the good news about economics. It can help us to understand many things. The bad news is that it is not the whole story. For understanding many questions other things matter too: psychology, history, sociology, politics. This is the sense in which economics is less powerful than people think. It provides only part of the answer.

And I would add that it is only part of the answer but it is the part that seems to be ignored in those very cases where it is most powerful and useful.